PAKISTAN STUDIES NOTES-GRADE 11th & 12th

Chapter # 7 –  Foreign Policy of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan

7.2.   Foreign Policy of Pakistan in Different Time Periods

7.2.1.   Discuss the Foreign Policy of Pakistan in the given Time Periods

Introduction

Pakistan has emerged as a significant player in global efforts to combat transnational terrorism, particularly following the events of September 11, 2001. This increased its strategic importance for major powers, notably the United States, which sought Pakistan’s cooperation in stabilizing post-Taliban Afghanistan and preventing the resurgence of Taliban and Al-Qaeda elements within Pakistan. However, Pakistan’s relevance in global politics has not been static; it has fluctuated over time, influencing its international role and foreign policy options.

Pakistan recognizes the necessity of engaging with the international community, given the intricacies of the modern global system. Interactions with other nations, international organizations, and supranational entities are deemed essential for safeguarding and advancing its national interests and sovereignty. Collaboration with other states is sought to address global challenges such as environmental issues, poverty, terrorism, and migration.

Despite pursuing an active foreign policy, Pakistan does not aspire to assume the role of a global or regional hegemon. Its proactive stance is geared towards mobilizing international support for domestic development, managing external influences, and enhancing security and territorial integrity.

The cornerstone of Pakistan’s foreign policy is ensuring security against external and internal threats to its national identity and territorial integrity. Additionally, fostering strong ties with Muslim-majority nations is prioritized. Pakistan upholds principles such as sovereign equality, bilateralism, mutual interest, and non-interference in domestic affairs in its diplomatic endeavors. While adhering to international norms and institutions, Pakistan advocates for their reform to align with contemporary global realities.

Pakistan’s foreign policy goals encompass a spectrum of issues, including support for self-determination, opposition to apartheid and colonialism, peaceful conflict resolution, arms control, nuclear non-proliferation, and promotion of peace and stability through international cooperation.

Strategies and Mechanisms: The pursuit of these foreign policy objectives has evolved over time, marking distinct phases in Pakistan’s foreign policy trajectory. Each phase is characterized by specific themes and operational strategies, which may overlap but reflect both continuity and change.

Pakistan’s foreign policy is shaped by a pragmatic approach aimed at safeguarding national interests, maintaining regional stability, and contributing to global peace and development. As the international landscape evolves, Pakistan adapts its strategies to navigate challenges and opportunities while upholding its core principles and objectives.

Major Phases of Pakistan’s Foreign Policy

1947-52: Exploration and Friendship with all (Political attitude of Pakistan towards Afghanistan, Iran, China, India, USA and USSR);

Foundations of the Foreign Policy

From 1947 to 1953, Pakistan, under the leadership of Quaid-i-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah, embarked on a mission of diplomacy and friendship with nations worldwide. Jinnah’s proactive efforts included radio addresses aimed at introducing Pakistan to audiences in the United States and Australia, expressing a strong desire for friendly ties with other states.

Similar sentiments were echoed as Pakistan established diplomatic relations with various countries, including Burma, France, the United States, Turkey, and Afghanistan, emphasizing a foreign policy rooted in friendliness, goodwill, and peace. Jinnah articulated Pakistan’s commitment to honesty, fair-play, and the promotion of peace and prosperity among nations, aligned with the principles of the United Nations Charter.

Pakistan’s entry into the United Nations in September 1947 signaled its commitment to international engagement and adherence to global norms. Despite challenges, including tensions with India and regional complexities, Pakistan remained steadfast in its pursuit of friendship with all nations, promotion of peace and harmony, and support for the liberation of oppressed peoples. These foundational principles laid the groundwork for Pakistan’s foreign policy endeavors in the years to come.

Afghanistan

During the this period, Pakistan faced compounded security concerns due to Afghanistan’s irredentist claims on Pakistani territory. Afghanistan refused to recognize Pakistan’s sovereignty over the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) and Baluchistan. Instead, the Afghan government made various claims on these provinces, ranging from advocating for the right of self-determination for Pashtuns/Pathans living in Pakistan to suggesting the establishment of an independent state comprising NWFP and Baluchistan, or even the incorporation of parts of these provinces into Afghanistan.

This situation significantly heightened Pakistan’s security concerns as it not only faced internal challenges in dealing with ethnic and regional tensions but also encountered external pressures from Afghanistan, which had the backing of India. India endorsed Afghanistan’s irredentist claims on Pakistan, thereby exacerbating the tensions between the two countries.

Furthermore, in the mid-1950s, the Soviet Union also extended support to Afghanistan in its relations with India, adding another layer of complexity to the regional dynamics. This alignment between Afghanistan, India, and the Soviet Union posed significant security challenges for Pakistan, necessitating a careful balancing act in its foreign policy decisions and security strategies during this period.

Iran

Pakistan maintained cordial relations with Iran during this period. Both countries shared historical and cultural ties, and Pakistan sought to foster a cooperative relationship with its neighbor to the west. There were no significant conflicts or disputes between Pakistan and Iran during this time, and they cooperated on various regional and international issues.

China

While Pakistan’s relations with China were not highly developed during this period, there was a recognition of China’s growing importance as a regional power. Pakistan was among the first countries to recognize the People’s Republic of China in January 1950. This early recognition laid the groundwork for future cooperation and friendly relations between the two countries.

Relations with India
In the initial years of independence, Pakistan grappled with significant challenges in its relations with India, while simultaneously endeavoring to establish itself within the global community. The issues that arose in the aftermath of partition left a lasting impact on Pakistan-India relations, fostering a climate of hostility and distrust.

These challenges stemmed largely from the partition process outlined in the 3rd June 1947 Plan and the Indian Independence Act of July 1947. They encompassed various contentious matters, including the division of assets such as funds, arms, and military equipment of the British Indian government. Additionally, widespread violence and communal riots during the partition, along with subsequent disputes over religious minorities, evacuee property, river-water distribution, and bilateral trade, further exacerbated tensions.

Controversies surrounding the accession of princely states like Junagadh, Hyderabad, and Jammu and Kashmir, coupled with the outbreak of the first Kashmir war in 1947-48, added to the strain between Pakistan and India. The concentration of Indian troops along the Punjab border in 1950-51 heightened tensions, narrowly avoiding armed conflict.

Furthermore, statements from Indian leaders, including those from the ruling Congress party, expressing regret over Pakistan’s establishment, and even discussions of potential reunification, intensified animosity between the two nations.

Overall, these multifaceted issues and conflicts deeply influenced Pakistan’s foreign policy outlook and its relationship with India, shaping the trajectory of regional dynamics in the years to come.

USA and USSR

Pakistan initially pursued an independent foreign policy and cultivated relations with major powers such as the United States, the Soviet Union, and China. The United States warmly welcomed Pakistan’s establishment, with ambassadorial level relations resumed in February 1948. However, the Soviet Union displayed indifference towards Pakistan’s formation. Although Pakistan and the Soviet Union agreed to establish diplomatic ties in April 1948, it took until December 1949 for Pakistan’s first ambassador to begin his duties in Moscow, while the Soviet ambassador arrived in Karachi in March 1950.

Pakistan made history as the first Muslim country to recognize the People’s Republic of China in January 1950. Ambassadors from both countries presented their credentials in September and November 1951, respectively. Despite an opportunity for improved relations when the Soviet Union invited Pakistan’s first Prime Minister, Liaquat Ali Khan, for an official visit in June 1949, the visit did not materialize. Instead, Liaquat Ali Khan visited the United States in May 1950, signaling a strong pro-Western stance by the Pakistani government. This decision disappointed the Soviet leadership, as they had hoped for a visit from Liaquat Ali Khan.

In summary, Pakistan’s foreign policy during this period was influenced by security imperatives, leading to strategic alignments with major powers such as the United States and China, while relations with the Soviet Union remained lukewarm due to missed opportunities for engagement.

1953-62: Alignment with the West (Military agreements, SEATO, CENTO, Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement 1954).

1953-62: Alignment with the West

From 1953 to 1962, Pakistan underwent a significant shift in its foreign policy, transitioning from an independent stance to aligning itself with the West, particularly the United States. This alignment was marked by a multifaceted engagement, including security arrangements and economic and military assistance from the United States, which intertwined Pakistan in the Cold War dynamics between the US and the Soviet Union.

The decision to align with the West was primarily driven by Pakistan’s acute sense of insecurity within its regional context, particularly its security concerns with India and Afghanistan. Economic challenges, such as a deepening crisis in the early 1950s exacerbated by dropping prices of key exports like jute and cotton, also contributed to this shift. The United States provided vital assistance to Pakistan during this period, offering wheat as a gift in 1953 to alleviate food shortages and garnering goodwill in Pakistan.

Several factors propelled Pakistan towards aligning with the United States. Pakistan perceived a sense of isolation in the world and found efforts to foster unity in the Muslim world unsuccessful. Moreover, it became apparent that international bodies like the UN and the Commonwealth were unlikely to resolve Pakistan-India issues, particularly the Kashmir dispute.

Pakistan’s choice of the United States as an ally was unsurprising, given the US’s willingness to counter communism globally and Pakistan’s existing pro-West disposition. Distrust of the Soviet Union, exacerbated by the discovery of the ‘Rawalpindi Conspiracy’ in 1951, further solidified Pakistan’s alignment with the US. Additionally, Pakistan’s weak political leadership saw American aid as a means to bolster their position.

The military leadership played a crucial role in cementing Pakistan-US relations, advocating for the alliance based on the perception that the West offered superior economic and technical advancements and had the resources to support its allies.

Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement

In February 1954, Pakistan agreed to the US initiative to enhance cooperation with Turkey, leading to formal agreements between the two countries. These included a Mutual Defence Assistance Agreement, through which the US provided military equipment and training to Pakistan for international security and self-defense purposes, while Pakistan committed not to use the assistance for aggressive actions against other nations.

SEATO
In September 1954, Pakistan became a member of the South East Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), also known as the Manila Pact. The organization comprised Australia, France, Great Britain, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, and the United States. Its objective was to enhance capabilities to resist attacks and counter subversive activities while fostering cooperation for economic progress and social well-being.

Member states of SEATO pledged to consider any armed aggression or threat to the territorial integrity of a member state as a threat to all, agreeing to consult each other to address such challenges. However, it was clarified by the United States that the SEATO pledge specifically applied to communist aggression or subversion. Despite Pakistan’s advocacy for broader inclusion of all forms of aggression, this plea was not accommodated within SEATO’s framework.

CENTO

In September 1955, Pakistan became a member of the Baghdad Pact, later renamed CENTO in 1959 following Iraq’s withdrawal. Pakistan regarded this pact with particular significance due to its inclusion of three Muslim states: Iraq (until 1959), Turkey, and Iran. Great Britain was also a member, with the United States maintaining close ties and participating in its military committee.

Members of the Baghdad Pact pledged to cooperate in the realms of defense and security. The United States clarified that its involvement in the military committee and support for bolstering the defensive capabilities of member states were solely directed towards countering the communist threat and did not imply any involvement in intra-area matters.

Defense and Economic Assistance from the U.S.A

In March 1959, Pakistan and the United States entered into a Bilateral Agreement of Cooperation, underscoring the importance of preserving Pakistan’s independence and integrity, deemed crucial to US national interests and global peace. This agreement facilitated military and economic assistance from the United States to Pakistan, aimed at safeguarding Pakistan’s national sovereignty and promoting its economic development.

As part of the agreement, Pakistan provided the United States with a communication/air base at Badaber near Peshawar for a duration of ten years, from 1959 to 1969. This arrangement signified a mutual commitment to strengthening bilateral ties and security cooperation.

Pakistan benefited significantly from its alignment with the United States, particularly in terms of economic assistance and military support. The American aid, including grants, loans, goods, and services, proved instrumental in revitalizing Pakistan’s struggling economy. Of particular significance was the extensive military assistance, valued at US $650 million in grants and US $55 million in credit facilities.

Military aid encompassed a wide array of equipment, including arms, ammunition, artillery pieces, armored personnel carriers (APCs), and transport vehicles for the Army. The Air Force received aircraft such as F-104, B-57, F-86, and C-130, while the Navy obtained naval defense equipment and warships. The establishment of the US Military Assistance Advisory Group (USMAAG) in Pakistan further facilitated the modernization of the armed forces and security arrangements, with reequipping of divisions, restructuring of defense systems, and improvements in training facilities.

Moreover, Pakistan’s military officers benefited from training courses in the United States, enhancing their skills and expertise. Participation in joint CENTO exercises provided valuable experience for Pakistan’s Air Force and Navy, contributing to their operational readiness and effectiveness. Overall, the strategic partnership between Pakistan and the United States during this period significantly bolstered Pakistan’s defense capabilities and economic development efforts.

 1963-71: Pakistan in search of new friends (Separation from the Western block, inclination towards USSR and China, China-Pakistan Border Agreement 1963, Tashkent Agreement 1965, Pakistan joined the RCD (later came to be known as ECO) in 1964);

During the period from 1963 to 1971, Pakistan embarked on a quest for new alliances and partnerships, marked by a notable departure from its previous alignment with the Western bloc. Instead, Pakistan began to show inclinations towards fostering closer ties with the Soviet Union and China, as well as engaging with regional cooperation initiatives such as the Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD), later known as the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO).

One significant development during this period was Pakistan’s decision to separate from the Western bloc, signaling a shift in its foreign policy priorities. This move was accompanied by a growing interest in strengthening relations with the Soviet Union and China, two major powers with whom Pakistan had previously maintained limited engagement.

In 1963, Pakistan and China signed the China-Pakistan Border Agreement, resolving long-standing border disputes and laying the foundation for a strategic partnership between the two countries. This agreement solidified Pakistan’s ties with China and opened avenues for enhanced cooperation in various spheres, including defense and economic development.

The Tashkent Agreement of 1965 marked a significant diplomatic milestone for Pakistan, as it brought an end to the Indo-Pakistani war of 1965. Signed in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, the agreement was brokered by the Soviet Union and represented a crucial step towards easing tensions between Pakistan and India.

Additionally, Pakistan joined the Regional Cooperation for Development (RCD) in 1964, a regional initiative aimed at promoting economic cooperation and development among member countries. The organization later evolved into the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO), expanding its scope to include broader regional integration efforts.

Overall, the period from 1963 to 1971 witnessed a strategic reorientation in Pakistan’s foreign policy, characterized by a shift towards closer engagement with the Soviet Union and China, as well as active participation in regional cooperation initiatives like the RCD/ECO. These developments reflected Pakistan’s efforts to diversify its diplomatic relations and pursue partnerships that would advance its national interests in a changing global landscape.

 1972-79: Bilateralism and non-alignment (withdrawal from Commonwealth, SEATO and CENTO, Pakistan joined the Non-aligned Movement, Islamic solidarity and OIC).

From 1972 to 1979, Pakistan’s foreign policy underwent a significant transformation characterized by bilateralism and nonalignment. This period saw Pakistan disengage from multilateral alliances and focus on cultivating relationships based on mutual interests with major powers such as the United States, the Soviet Union, and China.

One key aspect of Pakistan’s foreign policy during this time was the pursuit of bilateral relationships driven by mutual interests rather than permanent alignment with any particular bloc. Pakistan withdrew from the Commonwealth and the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) in January and November 1972, respectively. It emphasized the importance of mutual interests in cultivating relations with the United States, the Soviet Union, and China, without alienating one for the sake of the other.

Pakistan’s diplomatic efforts during this period also extended to diversifying its interactions with other regions and countries. It focused on developing economic, trade, and diplomatic relations with states in Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa, and South and Central America. This included giving attention to countries previously neglected by Pakistan’s policymakers.

Furthermore, Pakistan increasingly identified with the causes and issues of developing countries, advocating for the restructuring of the international economic order to better serve the needs of the developing world. This led to Pakistan attending the Non-Aligned Movement Summit as an observer in 1976 and formally becoming a member in September 1979.

The period also saw significant developments in Pakistan’s relations with neighboring India. While efforts were made to improve relations through peace agreements such as the Simla Agreement of 1972, underlying tensions persisted, particularly regarding military build-up and nuclear policies.

Additionally, Pakistan’s relations with major powers like China and the Soviet Union strengthened during this period. Frequent high-level exchanges and cooperation agreements in defense, technology, and industry underscored the deepening ties between Pakistan and these countries.

However, Pakistan faced challenges in its relations with the United States, particularly regarding its nuclear aspirations. Disagreements over Pakistan’s nuclear program led to strained relations, culminating in the suspension of economic and military assistance by the United States in 1979.

Despite these challenges, Pakistan’s diplomatic efforts also yielded positive outcomes, particularly in its relations with Muslim-majority states in the Middle East. These relationships contributed to Pakistan’s economic development and security needs, with Middle Eastern countries providing financial assistance, investment, and diplomatic support.

In summary, the period from 1972 to 1979 marked a phase of bilateralism and nonalignment for Pakistan, characterized by a diversification of diplomatic relations, increased identification with developing countries, and significant developments in its relationships with major powers and neighboring states.

 1980-90: Pakistan as a front-line ally of the USA in Afghan War, Pressler Amendment.

During the 1980s, Pakistan played a pivotal role as a frontline ally of the United States in the Afghan War against the Soviet Union’s invasion of Afghanistan. This period saw significant geopolitical shifts and alliances, with Pakistan emerging as a key player in the conflict.

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 prompted the United States to support Afghan resistance fighters, known as the Mujahideen, through Pakistan. Pakistan, under the leadership of General Zia-ul-Haq, became a crucial staging ground and logistical support base for the Mujahideen, providing training, weapons, and other forms of assistance.

The United States, recognizing Pakistan’s strategic importance in the conflict, significantly increased military and financial aid to Pakistan to support its role in the Afghan War. This support was provided through various channels, including direct military assistance, economic aid, and covert operations.

One significant development during this period was the enactment of the Pressler Amendment in 1985. This amendment, named after its sponsor, Senator Larry Pressler, mandated that the United States could only provide military aid to Pakistan if the President certified that Pakistan did not possess nuclear weapons. This legislation reflected growing concerns in the United States about Pakistan’s nuclear program and proliferation activities.

Despite the Pressler Amendment, the United States continued to provide substantial military and financial support to Pakistan throughout the 1980s, viewing it as a crucial ally in the fight against Soviet expansionism in the region. This support helped Pakistan bolster its military capabilities and maintain its role as a frontline state in the Afghan War.

Pakistan’s involvement in the Afghan War had significant repercussions for its internal security and regional dynamics. The influx of Afghan refugees, the rise of militant groups, and the spread of radical ideologies had lasting effects on Pakistan’s social fabric and security landscape.

Overall, the 1980s marked a period of close cooperation between Pakistan and the United States, with Pakistan serving as a frontline ally in the Afghan War against the Soviet Union. However, the Pressler Amendment highlighted the complexities and challenges in the bilateral relationship, particularly regarding nuclear proliferation concerns.

 1991-2001: Post-Cold War Era and Pakistan’s Dilemmas (rift between Pakistan and the US relations, Disintegration of the USSR and emergence of unipolar world, Brown Amendment 1995, Pakistan’s nuclear tests, Kargil War);

From 1991 to 2001, Pakistan faced a series of challenges and dilemmas in the aftermath of the Cold War. This period was marked by significant geopolitical shifts, including the disintegration of the Soviet Union and the emergence of a unipolar world dominated by the United States. Pakistan’s relationship with the US experienced strains and tensions, while internal and external factors further complicated its position on the global stage.

The disintegration of the USSR in 1991 fundamentally altered the global balance of power, leading to the emergence of a unipolar world with the United States as the dominant superpower. This shift presented Pakistan with new geopolitical realities and challenges as it sought to navigate its foreign policy in the post-Cold War era.

Despite historical ties, Pakistan’s relationship with the US experienced rifts and tensions during this period. Differences over issues such as nuclear proliferation, human rights, and democracy strained bilateral relations. The US imposed sanctions on Pakistan under the Pressler Amendment due to concerns about its nuclear program, leading to a deterioration in relations.

In 1995, the Brown Amendment further exacerbated tensions between Pakistan and the US. This legislation imposed additional restrictions on military aid to Pakistan, reflecting ongoing concerns about nuclear proliferation and democratic governance.

However, Pakistan’s nuclear tests in May 1998 marked a significant turning point in its history. Despite international condemnation and sanctions, Pakistan’s nuclear capability provided a sense of security and deterrence against external threats, particularly from neighboring India.

The Kargil War in 1999 further strained Pakistan’s relations with the US and India. Pakistan’s military incursion into the Kargil region of Indian-administered Kashmir led to a brief but intense conflict between the two nuclear-armed neighbors. The US intervened diplomatically to defuse the situation and prevent escalation, but the episode highlighted the volatility of the region.

Overall, the period from 1991 to 2001 was characterized by Pakistan’s efforts to navigate shifting geopolitical dynamics and reconcile its strategic interests with external pressures and challenges. The rifts in Pakistan-US relations, coupled with domestic political instability and regional tensions, presented significant dilemmas for Pakistan’s foreign policy and security calculus during this period.

2001 onwards: Pakistan’s role in the war against terrorism.

The aftermath of the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks marked a significant shift in global geopolitics, with the United States leading efforts to combat terrorism by non-state actors. Pakistan, initially scrutinized due to its historical ties with the Taliban regime in Afghanistan, swiftly aligned itself with the international community’s anti-terrorism endeavors.

Recognizing the gravity of the situation, Pakistan swiftly disassociated itself from the Taliban regime and pledged support to the global counter-terrorism campaign. This decision, influenced by UN General Assembly resolutions, was pivotal for safeguarding Pakistan’s strategic interests, including territorial security, nuclear assets protection, Kashmir, and economic revival.

Pakistan’s cooperation with the United States in the war against terror included opening its airspace and military bases for US operations in Afghanistan, intelligence sharing, and conducting joint military operations against Al-Qaeda and Taliban elements hiding in Pakistan’s tribal areas.

In return, the United States eased economic sanctions against Pakistan and provided substantial financial and technical assistance for various sectors, including healthcare, education, infrastructure development, and border security.

Despite these efforts, concerns lingered about the sustainability of Pakistan-US relations, given historical distrust and the precarious nature of regional dynamics. Pakistan faced internal challenges regarding its counter-terrorism strategy, including addressing extremist elements within its borders and managing its relations with neighboring India.

The relationship between Pakistan and India saw periods of tension and détente, with intermittent dialogue aimed at resolving longstanding disputes, notably over Kashmir. International diplomatic interventions helped de-escalate tensions and pave the way for confidence-building measures between the two nuclear-armed neighbors.

Pakistan also maintained close ties with China and Russia, receiving economic assistance and diplomatic support. However, concerns arose regarding Pakistan’s nuclear program’s security and proliferation risks, prompting assurances from Pakistani leaders regarding the program’s safety and commitment to non-proliferation principles.

Overall, Pakistan’s engagement in the global war on terror reshaped its foreign policy priorities, emphasizing cooperation with international partners while addressing domestic security challenges and regional tensions.

Conclusion

A review of Pakistan’s foreign policy reveals a consistent pursuit of its goals, albeit with occasional redefinitions and expansions. The strategies, both diplomatic and military, employed to achieve these goals have evolved over time, reflecting changes in regional and global dynamics, available resources, and the priorities of decision-makers.

Initially adopting an independent foreign policy in 1947, Pakistan gradually leaned towards the West within seven years, driven by economic and security pressures. Periods of close collaboration with the West, especially the United States, were observed in the mid-1950s, late 1950s, the 1980s, and post-September 2001. Conversely, from the mid-1960s to the late 1970s, Pakistan pursued a more independent and non-aligned stance, emphasizing engagement with Muslim states and the developing world.

Presently, Pakistan actively participates in global efforts to combat religious extremism and terrorism, recognizing these as significant threats to both global security and its own internal stability and development. Through tough decisions in counterterrorism and efforts to enhance peace and stability in its neighborhood, Pakistan aims to enhance its international standing, rebuild confidence in its governance and socio-economic capabilities, and present itself as a progressive, democratic, and responsible Muslim nation that does not harbor extremist elements.