PAK-STUDIES NOTES-GRADE 9th

Chapter # 2 – Historical Background (1857-1935)

2.1 Emergence of Political Consciousness amongst Indian Muslims

2.1.1. Trace the origin and evolution of the Two Nation Theory with reference to socio-economic and political conditions of Indian Muslims from 1857 onwards.

The origin of the Two-Nation Theory

The origin of the Two-Nation Theory can be traced back to the post-1857 Indian Revolt. During this time, both Hindus and Muslims rebelled together against the British with the goal of driving them out of India. However, in the aftermath of the revolt, Muslims began to feel that the British singled them out for reprisal as part of their revenge policy. They faced cruelty in various forms and were targeted socially, economically, and politically. Muslims also perceived that the dominant community in the Indian subcontinent supported the British in their efforts to completely subjugate Muslims.

Social conditions of Muslims     

The social conditions of Muslims were influenced by several factors. One significant event was the 1867 Hindi-Urdu Controversy, where the British replaced Urdu with Hindi as the court language. Some Hindus thought Urdu was only for Muslims and didn’t represent them, so they wanted Hindi to take its place. This upset Muslim leaders like Sir Syed Ahmad.

Additionally, the British stopped funding Muslim schools that taught in Urdu. These schools provided both Islamic and secular education. Many Muslims didn’t send their children to English schools because they believed English education conflicted with Islamic values. As a result, a generation of Muslims missed out on modern education. On the other hand, Hindus accepted English education, which eventually became dominant in various fields.

Economic Conditions of Muslims

After the events of 1857, the British tried hard to make life economically difficult for Muslims. They seized Muslim-owned lands and transferred them to individuals from other communities. In contrast, Hindus dominated business and commerce, largely due to their pro-British stance and anti-Muslim sentiments. As a result, the economic situation of Muslims got worse, greatly affecting their social status.

Political Conditions of Muslims

Muslims increasingly perceived that Hindus were aligned with the British in implementing anti-Muslim policies. Hindus held more political influence compared to Muslims. The lack of Muslim representation in the viceroy’s executive and imperial council further strengthened their belief in the collaboration between Hindus and the British against Muslims.

The belief among Muslims that Hindus deliberately supported British anti-Muslim policies led to the theory that long-term coexistence between the two communities would be impossible.

Evolution of the Two-Nation Theory

As mentioned earlier, in 1867, a group of Hindus advocated for replacing Urdu with Hindi as the court language. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan expressed his disapproval of this demand, viewing it as a threat to long-term Hindu-Muslim coexistence. The language controversy prompted Sir Syed to warn that if Hindus continued their anti-Muslim stance, it would become difficult for both communities to live together.

Sir Syed was the first to refer to Muslims as a “nation.” He recognized that due to anti-English and anti-British sentiments, Muslims lagged in education and economic development. He was concerned about the future of Muslims, given the predominantly educated Hindu population. Therefore, he encouraged Muslims to pursue modern education and strive for parity with Hindus to lead dignified lives. The pro-Hindu stance of the Indian National Congress reinforced the belief among Muslims that the Congress aimed to establish Hindu dominance in India under the guise of independence.

Indian National Congress and Sir Syed

Sir Syed Ahmad Khan advised Muslims to distance themselves from the Congress and focus on improving relations. He opposed the introduction of Western democratic systems in India, foreseeing that Muslims would always be underrepresented in joint electorates.

Establishment of All India Muslim League in 1906

The All-India Muslim League was established in 1906 with the goal of safeguarding the constitutional rights and interests of Muslims. One of its significant achievements was securing separate electorates for Muslims in the Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909. Other immediate achievements included one-third representation in the central government, quotas in the civil service and government jobs, etc., in a united India.

The Indian National Congress opposed the establishment of the league, viewing it as a tactic of British divide and rule policy. It opposed the efforts and achievements of the league, such as the separate electorates provided in the Indian Councils Act of 1909 for Muslims.

Congress and Hindu Tyranny in 1937-39

When the Congress formed governments in provinces, it subjected Muslims to social, religious, economic, and political persecution. Muslim homes and properties were set on fire, and noisy processions were held outside mosques during prayer times, including the desecration of mosques. Any complaints to authorities were ignored.

These atrocities by Hindus and the Congress convinced Muslims that any formula for a united India would not serve Muslim interests. They began to seek a separate homeland where they could live according to their own will and religious teachings. This context led to the league’s demand for a separate state for the Muslims of the Indian subcontinent on March 23, 1940.